Today, we take a look at turquoise from other lands. It’s the same stone, but as with turquoise found in the U.S., its appearance and quality are similarly widely variable.
There are other regions that claim at least small amounts of turquoise beneath the surface of their lands, but the amounts, at least thus far, are negligible. There are three major producers outside of the United States (and one whose name and reputation are being grievously misused, but which may nevertheless turn out to have the real thing buried in its soil).
One of the most fascinating aspects of turquoise production from these sources, to me, is that they all occur on major points along the Great Silk Road, that ancient and fabulous trade route. It explains how turquoise came to be prized so long ago by so many different cultures all over the world, and accounts for its prominence among the art and cultural artifacts of societies the world over, ancient and modern.
THE SILK ROAD
The Silk Road is one of the world’s greatest, and most ancient, trade routes, dating back well over two thousand years and spanning a distance of some 4,000 miles. Its point of origin was eastern China during the Han Dynasty (a reign of more than 400 years, beginning in the year 206 B.C.E. and ending in C.E. 220). Its name likewise stemmed from its Chinese origins: trade in the fine and expensive silk fabric for which the empire was already famous.
Over the centuries, the Silk Road extended well beyond the borders of what is now claimed by China, through what are now known as Tibet and Nepal and on to modern-day Indian, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and beyond, through the lands that would become the holdings of Eastern Europe and eventually Russia, and thence north to Western Europe and south to the Balkans and Turkey, the Middle East (then denominated Persia and Arabia), and on to North Africa, including ancient Egypt and what is now Somalia. It soon carried much more than silk, as well: It fast became a trade route for all manner of textiles, for food and spices, for leatherwork, for pottery, for artwork of every imaginable kind, for metalwork and jewelry, and, yes, for gemstones.
One of those gemstones, found in cultures all along the Silk Road and named for one of its major trading hubs, was turquoise.
Today, turquoise is still mined in a few of these stops along the Great Silk Road, and still traded and sold, albeit now on a truly global scale. Today, we visit four of the major points along that ancient trade route: China, Tibet, Iran (Persia), and Africa.
CHINA
In some parts of China, turquoise is still mined on a mass scale. The region best known for its turquoise production today is Hubei Province, in the eastern section of China. Some of the best turquoise from this region comes from an area called Yungai, which translates loosely to “Cloud Mountain.” Another major mine area in the Ma’an Shan district [often spelled variously Maanshan, Maan Shan, Ma’anshan, and assorted other ways when rendered into the English alphabet. You will sometimes find this turquoise misrepresented as being from Tibet; it is not. Ma’an Shan is in Anhui Province, in Nanjing; Hubei abuts it to the west. Tibet, on the other hand, is on the extreme western edge of the land area that China claims, and has its own sources of turquoise. Today, China is reportedly the single biggest producer of turquoise on the market, with some estimates runing as high as 805 of overall market share.
Chinese turquoise usually comes in a range of two major colors: classic robin’s-egg blue and and a soft greenish shade. As of this writing, you can see an example of better-quality blue here; of the green, here.
In Chinese turquoise, matrices are very often spiderwebbed. In some cases, the webbing is virtually indistinguishable from that of the classic webbed forms of American turquoise, but in others, the webbing is unusually distinctive. Among the less valuable forms is a type of seafoam green turquoise with a webbed matrix that looks to the naked eye to be a dark emerald green, and appears in a repeating pattern that looks much like a diamond shape stretched wide at the side points. In some cases, it is so uniform as to appear artificial. The matrix in such stone does share one quality with much of the matrixing found in better-grade blue Chinese stone, where it often shows in a purply-black color: It appears like delicate traceries of ink, bleeding ever so slightly into the stone itself. Think of the effect when you take a fountain pen and trace a thin line on a piece of parchment — if you look at the paper closely, you’ll see the feathery “bleed” of the ink beyond either side of the line itself, into the paper. That’s a common occurrence in the matrices of Chinese turquoise. It’s also a delicate, beautiful effect.
Some Chinese turquoise, however, has an even finer webbed matrix — webbing so tiny and tight that it appears as near-microscopic circular shapes, often aggregated together so tightly that it appears to form a blocky matrix rather than a webbed one. In some cases, only close examination makes clear that the inclusions do actually appear in a webbed pattern rather than in blocks or flecks of color.
The lapis and turquoise earrings in the photo above, sold many years ago, appear to contain natural Chinese turquoise. At this late date, it’s hard to know for sure, but the uniform greenish color and the webbed matrix shown are characteristic of Chinese turquoise. Wings rarely (as in virtually never) uses Chinese turquoise, at least knowingly. But Chinese cabochons and beads have been flooding the American market in recent years, and sometimes he comes into possession of some, usually through trade with another artist. Because these were of unknown origin, they were sold simply as “turquoise.”
In this case, they were natural cabochons, which raises their value significantly; most Chinese turquoise produced for the jewelry market today is stabilized, at a minimum; it’s often dyed and sealed, as well. And much of it is low-grade chalk turquoise that has been heat-treated, molded into shape, and dyed for mass sale. For this reason, much of the Chinese turquoise on the market is inexpensive in the extreme, often a matter of cents per carat, making it attractive to artisans living on the financial edge. The best-grade Chinese turquoise, such as some of the more spectacular Cloud Mountain cabochons, can run several dollars per carat, but I don’t think I’ve ever seen even old top-quality cabs for more than $10 or $12 per carat. On average, it tends to run in the $2-$5 per carat range. If your purpose in buying turquoise Indian jewelry is tied less to materials sources and market notions of “authenticity,” and more to the beauty and the other qualities of the stone itself, Chinese turquoise makes owning beautiful pieces much more affordable.
TIBET
Confusion sometimes arises in the Asian turquoise market over provenance, because of the conflict over Tibetan sovereignty. We choose, of course, to recognize Tibet’s inherent sovereignty, and so we refer to any turquoise extracted from its lands as “Tibetan turquoise,” not “Chinese turquoise.”
That said, there are other forms of confusion, too. As noted above, the Ma’an Shan mining district is nowhere near Tibet; it’s on the far east side of China’s land area, directly opposite the occupied lands of Tibet and an entire country away in geographic distance. yet that has not stopped some sellers from marketing the turquoise as “Tibetan turquoise.” I can speculate as to reasons for this, none of them good, but I attribute it mostly to a combination of anti-Chinese racism and an attempt to capitalize (literally) on Westerners’ sympathy with Tibet by appropriating its identity for commercial gain. Both are spectacularly ugly motivations.
Actual Tibetan turquoise comes largely from the Himalayas, and has been mined (often informally) for millennia by the indigenous peoples of the region. It holds spiritual properties for them, and is used ritually and for adornment.
Some Tibetan turquoise occurs on the bluer end of the blue-to-green spectrum, but it’s relatively rare. Most turquoise from this region is green, often a bright emerald green, and carries a strong, bold webbed matrix, usually in shades of brown. It also frequently manifests with what appears to be a translucent overlay of color and matrix, sometimes in mysterious swirling patterns. It often looks very much like a great deal of Nevada’s Royston turquoise, and is easily as beautiful. The stone in the photo at right could be either Tibetan or Royston; it’s an old stone, long since sold, and provenance was unclear even then. But it provides a good example of what fine Tibetan turquoise looks like.
Most Tibetan turquoise is not particularly valuable in market terms, but at an average of $2-$3 per carat for cabochons, it is affordable. It’s also a beautiful alternative for those for whom cost is a concern, particularly for those who are partial to turquoise in its brilliant green shades.
PERSIA (IRAN)
Despite the fact that the country’s official name is the Islamic Republic of Iran, the market still refers to turquoise from this region as “Persian” (“Persia” being one of the ancient names for Iran and its environs). Presumably, the label evokes a more ancient, mysterious, even magical mythos. On a practical level, it also avoids unpleasant associations (among many Westerners, at least) that the use of the modern name conjures, particularly in American minds.
Persian turquoise has long been considered some of the finest in the world, especially among European populations who had no idea there was a continent on the other side of the world, much less that its indigenous cultures were already busily mining the same blue and green stone for their own use. Some sources speculate that ancient Persia was actually the source of the sky-blue stone that Europeans encountered in Turkey, an encounter that gave rise to its accepted modern name. In Iran, the stone is known as firouzeh (which appears with spelling variants). According to some sources, the word is an adaptation of the Farsi word pirouzeh, which allegedly translates to “victory” — a stone of kings and conquerors, indeed.
Turquoise is still mined in Iran today — indeed, it is the country’s national stone — but in far smaller volume than in times past. It is an integral part of the region’s history, culture, and economy, so much so, in fact, that the region has historically divided the turquoise it produces into three categories, each with its own name. The lowest grade is known as Arabi, and is paler and chalkier in substance. Mid-grade turquoise from Iran is called Barkhaneh locally (the spelling varies a bit, depending on the source), and refers to gem-grade stone that bears significant matrix and/or dendritic inclusions. Iranians consider the highest-grade stone to be that which appears in a rich dark sky-blue shade, and is relatively free of inclusions of any sort. They call it Angushtari (or Angoshtari), a word that reportedly translates more or less as “a stone suitable for a ring for the finger.” It is this grade of Persian turquoise for which the region is most famous.
Today, much of the turquoise that is mined in in the region still comes from the Khorasan Province of northeastern Iran. Its capital city is Nishabur (sometimes spelled Nishapur), and the area has long been an ancient cultural center and trade hub. The area is home to the Ali-Mersai mountain range, a primary source of turquoise for more than two millennia.
It is possible to find Persian turquoise on the contemporary American market (as well as internationally), and at relatively reasonable prices, considering the intangible value attributed to the stone. One Nevada dealer currently sells cabochons and highly polished nuggets for $8 per carat. It should be noted, though, that as of this writing, these particular stones do not, in fact, meet the textbook definition of Angushtari turquoise: They have too much matrix, too many dendritic and other inclusions, to qualify. Well-cut top-quality cabochons of Angushtari turquoise are harder to find here, and likely to run significantly more. But for those who like clear, deep, intense blues (sometimes approaching the indigo, like the colors found in the best Candelaria turquoise), it’s worth the effort and cost.
AFRICA
One of the indigenous cultures that historically made some of the greatest use of turquoise was that of ancient Egypt. Egypt was, of course, a terminus on the great Silk Road, and an active trading hub, but it’s unrealistic to think that a stone that appeared so commonly among tombs and other ornamentation was entirely an import, given the climate and geology of the area. And it was popular indeed, used on the tombs of the Pharaohs, inlaid into pottery and metalware, and worn in jewelry and amulets, apparently both for its brilliant beauty and for its presumed protective powers.
There is a perception out there that there is no turquoise to be found in Africa; that it’s all jasper being marketed falsely as turquoise. It’s the product of unscrupulous marketing practices, practices that are both silly and dangerous. It capitalizes (in very literal terms) on the associations of a label, using the “rationale” that it’s merely a “trade name.” More than that, it feeds so-called Western perceptions rooted in nasty stereotypes.
Now, it is true that some forms of African jasper are being marketed under the label “turquoise.” Some of it is no doubt attributable to honest mistakes; some, not so much. But of the latter, you need look no further than the U.S. to find examples of unscrupulous sellers attempting to pawn off pretenders. And here, it tends to be much worse: peddling cheap chalk howlite dyed blue and hardened with plastic as expensive turquoise stones. At least with the African jasper “turquoise,” it’s a genuine, organically formed stone, and a lovely one, too.
But parts of Africa have the perfect climate for turquoise to appear: dry, largely arid, with copper (and other metals and minerals) present. Those who scoff at any possibility of African turquoise forget one thing: Turquoise manifests in all sorts of colors, depending on the metals and minerals co-occurring with a given deposit, and it is not uncommon even in the U.S. to find turquoise that appears in shades closer to the yellow and brown ends of the spectrum.
If I ever get the opportunity (and have the discretionary funds to do it), I’d like to get hold of some of the top-grade African stone that appears to my eye to be actual turquoise and have it mineralogically tested. It bears the visual hallmarks of turquoise, but not of jasper, and considering all the misinformation out there, I’m personally disinclined to take the word of self-appointed “experts” with vested interests in either outcome.
All that said, calling jasper “turquoise?” It’s misleading at best, and more often downright fraudulent. I’ve seen sellers try to justify the practice on the grounds that “it’s a trade name, not a stone name.”
It’s hooey.
If something is marketed to you as “African turquoise,” question the seller closely. If you don’t feel you’re getting an honest answer, don’t buy — unless, of course, what matters to you is the unique beauty of that particular stone, and not its identity as either turquoise or jasper. But if that’s the case, make sure you’re paying jasper prices, not turquoise prices. And if you’re lucky enough to find a turquoise stone actually pulled from the African earth, tested and found to be genuine turquoise, then you have a find indeed.
Within the art medium known as “Indian jewelry,” turquoise from other countries presents an issue. For knowledgeable wearers and collectors, there’s generally an unspoken expectation that the turquoise in a given piece will be American turquoise. The reasons seem to be mostly two-fold.
First and foremost, for many buyers, it doesn’t seem like “Indian turquoise” if it’s not American in origin. That is to say, the association with Native culture seems to require that the stone come from this continent. That doesn’t hold true of other stones or metals, but turquoise’s iconic status in Southwestern Indian jewelry has made it a special case. It is, of course, the same stone, mineralogically, but it’s an intangible association that “makes” the stone.
Second is quality. Turquoise from most parts of the world is beautiful, but much of what is found elsewhere is of far cheaper quality than what has been mined in the U.S. Even the very best from, say, China’s Hubei Province comes nowhere near the quality of the lowest-grade, least valuable turquoise from Nevada veins like Indian Mountain or Lander Blue. Persian turquoise is often of relatively decent value, but also often lacking in the sort of matrices that make much American turquoise so highly prized. Much of the turquoise found in China and Tibet tends to be significantly lower-grade, and is often stabilized or otherwise treated and then turned into mass-produced cabochons and beads.
All that said, even the cheapest turquoise — from anywhere in the world — remains a beautiful stone. If your goal is simply jewelry containing stones in that particular [usually, but not always, blue or green] color, then turquoise from other lands can be a beautifully cost-effective way to achieve the look you want.
This concludes our visits to turquoise mining districts around the world. We’ll spend the remaining Tuesdays of 2014 exploring other aspects of the turquoise market: the pretenders; treatments; and valuation.
~ Aji
All content, including photos and text, are copyright Wings and Aji, 2015; all rights reserved. Nothing herein may used or reproduced in any form without the express written permission of the owners.
